Editors' Ready
Reference Book
on the Cement
Industry and
Concrete
KNOW*
AMERICAN
INDUSTRIES
HP HE aim of this booklet is —
To furnish editors with a short, but
complete history of the cement industry;
To give them authoritative facts and fig-
ures about the important uses of concrete;
To display ready reference tables on road
mileages, highway maintenance costs, cement
production and use, and various other matters
that are frequently needed by newspapers, and
usually difficult to find.
This booklet is sent you with the com-
pliments of the Portland Cement Association
on the one hundredth anniversary of the in-
vention of portland cement.
Portland Cement Association
A National Organization to Improve and Extend
the Uses of Concrete
111 West Washington Street
CHICAGO
OFFICES IN THIRTY CITIES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Cement
What is p< >rtland cement
Hon Portland cement is manufactured
I cement a
Concrete
H in i''l<t weather
Concrete Pavements
\\ ' .' into a i
ption on various i \ i ■ idi
i r mile f< U c w if h< »ut driven
H niui 1.
Concrete Produ
Lighting itandardi
Bl<
'ruction
ss
. 1 fin l< >i -
jry
\
\
Home Building
1 ]•
Largi
Mats ior Newsp.;
and Cement As*
M
koads and Sti
I
Auction
I
Where Does the Cement Production Go?
ESTIMATED DISTRIBUTION OF PORTLAND
CEMENT BY USES
(Percentages based on figures given in the 1922 U. S.
Geological Survey Bulletin on Cement)
Per Cent
Public and commercial buildings 24.9
Dwellings 9.4
Sidewalks and private driveways 6.9
Miscellaneous farm uses 20.6
Concrete pipe for water, sewers, irrigation and culverts 4.3
Paving and highways 24.0
Railways 5.2
Bridges, river and harbor work, dams and water power
projects, storage tanks and reservoirs • • 3.0
Miscellaneous uses 1*7
100.00
mmml^
EDITORS' READY REFERENCE BOOK
Uses of Cement
ABUTMENTS
Bridge
Dam
Trestle
AERATORS
ALTARS
AMPHITHEATRES
ANCHORS
Buoy
Bridge
Post
ANVIL BLOCKS
APPROACHES
Barns
Bridges
AQUARIA
AQUEDUCTS
ARBORS
ARCHES
AREAWAYS
ART STONE
BALCONIES
BALUSTRADES
BAND STANDS
BARGES
BARNS
BARRELS
BARRIERS
BASE BOARDS
BASINS
BEACONS
BEAMS
BEEHIVES
BENCH STANDARDS
BENCHES
BENCH MARKS
BINS
Aggregates, Sand, Etc.
Cement
Coal
Grain
Lime
Ore
BIRD BATHS
BIRD HOUSES
BLACKBOARDS
BLEACHERS
BLOCKS
BOAT LANDINGS
BOATS
BOILER SETTINGS
BOOTHS
BOXES
Coffin
Cooling
Feed
Flower
Garbage
Hydrant
Letter
Street Cleaning
Water Meter
BRACKETS
To Support Bridges
BREAKWATERS
BRICK
BRIDGES
BOUNDARY MARKERS
BOWLING ALLEYS
BUILDINGS OF EVERY
DESCRIPTION
BUMPERS
Filled with Concrete, for
Automobiles
Railroad
BUOYS
BURNERS
Charcoal
BUTTS FOR TRANSMIS-
SION POLES
CAISSONS
CANALS
Irrigation
Waterpower
Waterway
CAPS, CHIMNEY
CARS. FREIGHT
CATCH BASINS
CATTLE GUARDS
CEILINGS
CELLS, PRISON
CELLARS
CEMENTATION OF
ROCK FISSURES
CEMETERIES
Grave Markers
Monuments
Mortuary Chapels
Rubbish Boxes
Vaults
CHANNELS
CHECK GATES
CHIMNEYS
CHUTES
CISTERN COVERS
CISTERNS
COAL POCKETS
COAST DEFENSE
COFFERDAMS
COLD FRAMES
COLUMNS
Column Footings
CONCRETE ENCASING
Clay Sewer Pipe
Iron Turbines
Segmental Vitrified Clay
Blocks
Steel Bridges
Steel Buildings
Steel Columns
Steel Girders
Steel Penstocks
Steel Pipes
Steel Poles
Steel Gasoline Tanks
Steel Viaducts
Wood Piles
Wood Poles
CONDUITS
Telephone
Water
COPING
CORNCRIBS
CORNICES
COUNTERWEIGHTS
Bridge
COURTS
Croquet
Tennis
CRYPTS
CURBS
CURTAINS
DAMS
DECORATIVE
B ridges
Buildings
Cemeteries
Gardens
Parks
DIPPING VATS
DOCKS
DOMES
DOOR FRAMES
DRAIN HEADS
DRAIN TILE
DRIP AND SPLASH
BOARDS FOR TANKS
DRIVEWAYS
DRY DOCKS
ENGINE BEDS
FACING
Block
Bridge
Building
Dams
Reservoir
FACTORIES
FENCES
FILTERS
Sewage
Water Purification
FIRE PLACES
FIREPROOFING
FIRE WALLS
FLAG POLES
FLOOD PREVENTION
FLOORS OF ALL KINDS
FLOWER POTS
FLUMES
FONTS
FOOT SCRAPERS
FORGES
Blacksmith
FORTIFICATIONS
FORUMS
FOUNDATIONS
FOUNTAINS
Drinking
ON CEMENT INDUSTRY AND CONCRETE
FRAMES
PAVEMENTS
SIPHONS
Art Window
Door
PERGOLAS
SLABS
Partitions and Wall Open-
PIERS
SLEEPERS
ing
Transom
PILES
Floor
Railway
Window
PIPE ORGANS
SLUICEWAYS
FROST PROOFING
FURNITURE
PIPES
PITS
SMELTERS
Garden
SPEEDWAYS
Porch
Ash
Boiler
SPILLWAYS
GARAGES
GARGOYLES
Engine
Fertilizer
STADIA
GATE CHAMBERS
Manure
Motor
STAIRWAYS
GIRDERS
PLATFORMS
STUCCO
GRANDSTANDS
POLES
SUBWAYS
GUARD RAILS
PONDS
SUN-DIALS
GUTTERS
POOLS
SWITCHBOARDS
HARBOR CONSTRUC-
TION
Bathing
Wading
SYNTHETIC STONE
HEAD GATES
PORCHES
TABLES
Billiard
HENS' NESTS
POSTS
Laboratory
HOG WALLOWS
Anchor
TABLETS, MEMORIAL
HOT BEDS
Arbor
HOUSES
ICE BOXES
Clothesline
Fence
Gate
TANKS
TIES, RAILROAD
INCINERATORS
Garden Refuse
Hitching
Mail Box
Mile
Sign
TILE
Decorative
Garbage
Drain
INLETS
Signal
TREE SURGERY
Flume
Vineyard
TRIMSTONE
Sewer
POWER PLANTS
TROUGHS, DRINKING
INSULATION
PROTECTION OF
Iron
Steel
TRUSSES
IRRIGATION CONDUITS
TUBS
JETTIES
Wood
TUNNELS
KENNELS
LAWN ROLLERS
PUMPING PLANTS
QUAYS
RATPROOFING
TURBINES
LAUNCHING WAYS
TURNTABLES
LINING
REFRIGERATORS
TURPENTINE CUPS
LINTELS
REMODELING
URNS
LOCKS, CANAL
RESERVOIRS
VASES
LUMBER, CONCRETE
RETAINING WALLS
VATS
MANGERS
REVETMENTS
VAULTS
MANHOLES
ROOFS
Bank
MANTLES
RUNWAYS
Battery
Burial
Safety
MARKERS, BOUNDARY
SAFETY ISLES AT
MASONRY
STREET CROSSINGS
MILL RACE
SEWAGE DISPOSAL
WAITING STATIONS
MINE CONSTRUCTION
SEWERS
WALKS
MOIST CABINETS
SHAFTS
WALLS
MONUMENTS
Elevator
Mine
WAREHOUSES
MORTAR
Tunnel
WATER COOLERS
MOSAIC DECORATION
SHEDS
WATERPROOFING
MOULDINGS
SHINGLES
WATER WORKS
ORGAN PIPES
SIDEWALKS
SYSTEMS
OUTLETS
SIGNS
House Number
WELLS
Channel
Gas
Sewer
SILLS FOR WINDOWS
Oil
PAINT
SILOS
Water
PANELS, FENCE
SINKS
WHARVES
EDITORS' READY REFERENCE BOOK
A Brief History of the Portland Cement
Industry in the United States
pHE first effort to produce portland cement in the United States
was made in 1872 when a plant was established at Coplav Penn-
sylvania, by David O. Saylor. At that time imported portland cement
was securing a strong foothold on the American market In Eng-
land, where the industry had been founded in 1824, decided progress
had been made, but very little information pertaining to portland
cement manufacture was available in this country.
Saylor had been making natural cement for some years before
int 7^% "?°* th I P °u rtland CCment field - His action ' n establish-
ing a plant started other manufacturers experimenting and within
a few years plants were being operated in various parts of the country
tn ™T\ interes , tin g stories are told of the efforts of the early pioneers
homt In hiT a w tun !l g u methods - Saylor would carr y P ieces of rock
home in his pocket and burn them in his cook stove in carrying out
sTaT/l 8 ' J °^ V hin "' an ° ther earl y manufacturer in Penn-
oendilit fr^ d abCnt ? r ' 3Xle int ° a P»mitive crusher by sus-
tedals 3 SPnng P ° le 3nd bouncin g ^ down on the raw ma-
bus^e« W Tn°n™ hS ^n ^o' 8 embarkati °n « the portland cement
facture of Th^ . Ml len ° f South Bend, Indiana, began the manu-
concrete Lw mate "al. At that time Millen was engaged in making
ine with nT r H P T' Settm K his cement f ™ abroad^ In experiment 5
£f aailT f Cemen u' MillCn WOuld drive int ° th e country and
o clav f om Z ° m ^ l3ke regi ° n near N °t" Dame, and a pail
; ou Si Tf" and u carr y them back to his pipe factory where
grinTin^offermin" 11 *"" * * *«* ° f ^ ^ He WOuW
the product resulting
from the burning
and in a short time
developed crude
kilns and grinding
machinery and man-
ufactured portland
cement for the
United States gov-
ernment.
During this early
Period, imported ce-
ment had become so
popular that the
American manufac-
turers had a difficult A m ° dern ro *«T Yemeni kiln in w | lk h the ran- material-
are burned to .linker.
ON CEMENT INDUSTRY AND CONCRETE
time selling their product. In fact, it was not until about 1900 that
production of local cement surpassed the sale of imports.
The first portland cement mill west of the Mississippi River was
not established until 1880, when the industry was started at San
Antonio, Texas.
At the present time there are 127 operating portland cement plants
in the United States.
A Brief History of Earlier Cements
LONG before the dawn of the Christian era people had been using
'cementing materials for a variety of building purposes. The
Carthagenians erected an aqueduct in northern Africa seventy miles
long several centuries before the Roman Empire was established.
Vitruvius, architect for Augustus, wrote at length on the uses of
cements and plasters,
while the elder Pliny
mentions cement a
number of times in
his writings. The
tomb of King Tut-
Ankh-Amen in the
Valley of the Kings,
Luxor, Egypt, has
only recently dis-
closed examples of
the early use of ce-
menting materials.
All of these early
cements were nat-
ural cements. In
other words, nature
was depended on for
their formation. The
Romans used slaked
lime mixed with vol-
canic ash. They had
discovered that such
a mixture made a su-
perior building mate-
rial. They did not
know why or how,
nor did they under-
stand the propor-
tioning of the mate-
rials, or the part the
Volcanoes played in ()n ^ <f |h<i par|v eemeni kiIlls erected in England by William
burning the rock. Aapdin about isse.
EDITORS* READY REFERENCE BOOK
The difference between these early cements and modern portland
cement is that portland cement is a strictly manufactured product.
Its composition is known at all times. Certain materials are pulver-
ized, proportioned, mixed, burned at high temperature and reground
to make a standard product. The Roman natural cements depended
largely on nature for their proportioning, and on the volcanoes for
the burning. There was no dependability and no consistency. Port-
land cement is a strictly uniform product.
During the Dark Ages the secret of the Romans apparently was
lost. It was not until 1756 that an English engineer named John
Smeaton found that an impure limestone containing a certain amount
of clayey matter possessed the property of hardening under water
when burned and reduced to powder. At the time, Smeaton was
engaged in building a lighthouse on the Eddystone Rocks off the
coast of Cornwall, and by using his new-found material he erected
a structure that stood for years before it was torn down to make way
for a larger one.
Following Smeaton's discovery other experimenters busied them-
selves in the cement field and various improvements were made.
In 1824 Joseph Aspdin, a mason of Leeds, England, was granted a
patent for a material he called "portland cement," because of its
similarity when hardened to a rock quarried on the Isle of Portland.
Aspdin's chief contribution was his discovery of the value of pro-
portioning, mixing, burning and grinding the materials. However,
it is doubtful if he really understood the chemistry of the process,
and this field was extended by Isaac C. Johnson, also an English-
man. During this same period other men were engaged in cement
research in France and Germany, and much valuable information
was contributed by many of them.
THE NATIONAL FIRE LOSS
The annual fire loss in the United States, based on actual payments by
nre insurance companies, according to Bradstreets, is as follows:
\ 919 $269,000,000
„? 331,000,000
::;; 333,000.000
„V 411,000,000
J 389,000,000
in FTan c ry?im. fire ^ is I ? ro 1 und $ 3 - In England it is 33 cents per capita;
Stafc^nrobabiv "In " 1 Holland ' U «nts. The figures for the United
•SdV^ 70 P- cent of the entire loss, as unin-
ON CEMENT INDUSTRY AND CONCRETE
What Is Portland Cement?
PORTLAND cement, instead of being the name of a particular
brand of cement, is a commodity, like sterling silver or Paris
green, that is produced by many different manufacturers. In the
United States there are today some ninety companies making port-
land cement — now commonly known merely as "cement." Mixed
with sand, stone and water it forms concrete, which is in effect "stone
that you can mould.'*
The essential elements of portland cement are lime, silica and
alumina. These are obtained in various combinations of raw ma-
terials, including cement-rock and limestone, limestone and clay or
shale, marl and clay, and blast furnace slag and limestone.
Difference Between Portland and Natural Cements
The essential difference between portland cement and the old
natural cements is that portland cement is a scientifically manufac-
tured product the chemical constituents of which are carefully pre-
determined, while natural cements were made from the rock just
as it came from the quarry. The rock was merely broken into pieces,
heated to a comparatively low temperature, and then pulverized.
These natural cements depended upon nature for their proportioning
and mixing.
For portland cement, specific quantities of different ingredients
are proportioned, pulverized and intimately mixed, burned at extreme
temperature to hard clinker, and reground to extreme fineness.
Standard specifications demand that cement be ground fine enough
for at least 78 per cent of a given quantity to pass through a sieve
with 40,000 holes to the square inch — a sieve that is finer than silk.
How Portland Cement Is Manufactured
PORTLAND cement manufacture is the art of taking definite
proportions of raw materials, such as limestone, marl, shale, clay
and blast furnace slag, grinding them to extreme fineness, burning
them at a temperature that would melt steel, and regrinding the
resulting clinker to a powder finer than flour. Over eighty operations
are necessary before the cement is ready for market.
The first step is to secure the raw materials. Huge rocks from
the quarry, marl from marl beds and clay from clay pits must be
transported to the mills. Long before a plant is built, chemists test
the deposits of materials in the field to assure a quantity that will
warrant the establishment of an expensive mill.
The rocks are blasted loose in the quarry by high explosive, and
steam shovels load them on dump cars for transportation to the
10 EDITORS' READY REFE RENCE BOOK
mill. Huge gyratory or jaw crushers break lumps of rock the size
of a piano into small fragments. Secondary crushers reduce them
to still smaller pieces.
The modern cement plant contains a variety of crushing and grind-
ing machinery. There are hammer mills, where hinged hammers
batter the rock to bits, or centrifugal mills where the materials are
crushed between steel rollers. Grinding is often done in ball or
tube mills — armor plated cylinders half-filled with tons of steel balls.
As the cylinder revolves, the balls roll over and over, reducing the
material to fine powder.
Moving belts, bucket chains or screw conveyors carry the ma-
terial from machine to machine in its trip through the plant.
Before final grinding prior to its entrance into the kilns, the ma-
terial is exactly proportioned. Automatic scales, sealed and locked
by the plant chemist, measure the proper amounts of each ingredient.
In the fine grinding machines a thorough mixing takes place, and
the properly proportioned powder goes to the kilns.
The modern rotary cement kiln operates similarly to a gigantic
blow torch. The kilns are steel jacketed cylinders, lined with fire-
brick and resting on their sides at a slight angle from the horizontal.
Heavy gears rotate the kilns. One of the largest kilns when loaded
for operation weighs as much as a train of ten steel Pullman cars
and consumes a ton of pulverized coal every fifteen or twenty min-
utes. The powdered materials— or in wet process plants, the slurry
—enters the upper end of the kiln and the rotation moves it toward
the lower, or burning, end. Here a jet of burning coal dust, fuel oil
or gas shoots into the kiln, for thirty feet or more. Temperatures of
between 2,500 and 3,000 degrees Fahrenheit are produced. Several
hours are required for the kiln burning and the material comes out as
white-hot clinker, which when cooled becomes glass-hard pellets the
size of marbles or walnuts. This clinker is cooled in cooling ma-
chines, and then goes to storage piles where it awaits final grinding.
It is in the burning that a chemical change takes place that gives the
material its cementing properties.
tn r !! h f r l tH ! CHnker is ground ' a sma11 amount of gypsum is added
to regulate the setting time. Ground to a powder finer than flour the
material is ready for the sacking machines.
a r„ fiiT a J ting f < ? ing ' H is Stored in hu S e concrete bins. The sacks
™ u P*jde down, after they have been tied. This rather remark-
able features due to the use of valve sacks. The cement enters the
off «,S il g 3 m the b0tt0m ' the flow bein i automatically cut
thl hnl„\ Pr °u Per C ° ntem ° f 94 P° unds is insid e- A valve flap over
the hole keeps the contents intact.
anJchZf^T! \ hC Wh ° le Pr ° cess of manufacture, frequent physical
and chemical tests are made to insure a standard product.
ON CEMENT INDUSTRY AND CONCRETE 11
The Portland Cement Association
What It Is, and How It Operates
IN the introduction to a book on "Trade Association Activities, "
recently published by the United States Department of Commerce,
Secretary Herbert Hoover uses the following general definition of a
trade association:
"A trade association is an organization of producers or distrib-
utors of a commodity or service upon a mutual basis for the purpose
of promoting the business of its branch of industry or commerce and
improving its service to the public. * * * The purpose and aim
of a trade association then is to deal with all questions of general
application in the branch of industry or commerce it serves, and so to
develop its field that the enterprises in it may be conducted with the
greatest efficiency and economy."
The organization which is now known as the Portland Cement
Association, had its beginning in 1902, when a small group of cement
manufacturers met in New York City to talk over problems of gen-
eral interest. About a score of plants in the east were represented
at the meeting. The result was the formation of a small trade asso-
ciation, and a secretary was employed to look after the general
business.
From that small beginning the organization has developed until
at present it is made up of a general office in Chicago and district
offices in 30 representative cities. About 200 of the 350 employes of
the organization are trained engineers. The membership includes
85 cement companies operating plants in the United States, Canada,
Mexico, Cuba and South America. About ninety per cent of the
American mills are members.
In cooperation with Lewis Institute, Chicago, the Association
maintains a research laboratory devoted exclusively to cement and
concrete research. Thousands of tests are made here and some 35
employes are busily engaged unearthing information that will be of
assistance in getting maximum results with concrete.
In the general office there are a number of bureaus devoted to
special phases of concrete work. Highways, cement products, agri-
cultural uses, structural uses, railroad uses and housing are all cov-
ered by specialists. Latest developments are kept track of, and each
bureau works in close cooperation with the district offices. These
district offices have a trained engineer in charge with a number of
fieldmen working throughout the territory. In this way individual
contact is established with concrete users, and the information devel-
oped at the laboratory and in the general office bureaus is broadcast
without charge to the people who use cement — whether it be a single
sack or a million barrels.
12
EDITORS' READY REFERENCE BOOK
A number of committees among the membership have proved
their value in bringing about economies in production. Meetings of
the entire membership are held twice a year, when these various com-
mittees report on technical problems, conservation, plant operation
and other common matters. An Accident Prevention Bureau has
been of untold benefit in keeping down accidents and instilling the
idea of safety into the minds of the workmen. At the membership
meetings technical papers are read which bring out many valuable
items of information.
The Advertising and Publications Bureau at the general office has
charge of all advertising, booklet preparation and literature distribu-
tion. There is scarcely a form of concrete work that has not been
covered in a booklet prepared for free distribution.
In 1921 the Association, for the first time, experimented with
newspapers as advertising mediums. The peculiar thing about As-
sociation advertising is that it is intended to sell an idea— not a
product. No brand of portland cement is ever mentioned. The inten-
tion is merely to create a demand for cement— and it is then up to
oston
Map Bllo «in K rffee. of the i. ortlaml c<ment AMwialiuu
n h ewsTane b r e sn C a ,T? ani ^ individuall y to ■* the business. The use of
th Tnext VIS? > advertl£ T g Pr ° ved so ^P™ingly valuable, that
aoe a L ^ T™*?' 3nd this ^ a ^ "umber of
use all h nl I t0 C Hst ° bviousl y it » impossible to
belief in thp PC i S ™ f" C ° Untry ' but the Association is firm in its
^leLZlll™ >■ newspaper advertising and devotes a con-
siderable appropriation for that purpose.
ON CEMENT INDUSTRY AND CONCRETE 13
Special Features of Association Service
IMPROVEMENT news is live news, especially public improve-
ments. Taxpayers are interested in knowing how their money is
being spent, and what they are getting for it. And they look to the
newspapers for such information. For that reason the newspapers will
find the fieldmen of the Portland Cement Association valuable news
centers, for these men are constantly in touch with what is being
done throughout their territory, and what is contemplated. In a way
they are reporters themselves, for it is their business to know what
is taking place in the building and improvement field.
The Association, through its fieldmen or any of its district offices,
can supply latest information on how various cities are handling their
improvement problems, and what is being done in various parts of
the country.
For the past several years an increasingly large number of
newspapers have
| f Ifi^ realized the value
of attractive house
plans for building
pages or real estate
sections, and have
requested such ma-
terial from the
Association. Hun-
dreds of pages of
advertising of build-
ing products have
been sold with these
house plans as a
nucleus. Mats of
farm improvements
have likewise been
found desirable for
farm sections, and
many requests have
been received for
material of this kind.
Association fleldman assisting contractor with slump test to See paffes 32 and 35.
determine rigrht consistency of concrete, " &
PORTLAND cement is now 100 years old. It was invented in 1824 by an
English mason, who called it "portland" cement because of its resem-
blance, when hardened, to an English building stone quarried on the Isle of
Portland. The first American plants for its manufacture were established 48
years later. Today the United States produces more portland cement than
all the rest of the world combined.
14
EDITORS' READY REFERENCE BOOK
A Research Laboratory for the Benefit
of Cement Users
IN cooperation with Lewis Institute, Chicago, the Portland Cement Associ-
ation maintains the Structural Materials Research Laboratory in the
Institute buildings.
This laboratory is the only one in the country devoted exclusively to
cement and concrete research. About 35 people are employed for this work
and every year thousands of tests are carried out to develop information
that will assist concrete users to get maximum results.
One of the features of the Laboratory is a "sand library" where over
2,800 specimens of sand are filed away in small glass bottles. There are
sands from every section of the country and from a number of foreign lands.
Every specimen has been tested as to its suitability in concrete work, and
definite knowledge is at hand on just what can be expected from various
kinds of sand.
Experiments at the Laboratory have brought out valuable information
in regard to the water ratio in mixing concrete and it has been found that
the amount of water used is just as important as the amount of cement.
Other experiments have covered the relative merits of different types of
aggregates, the design of concrete mixtures, the effect of curing conditions of
concrete, effect of fineness of cement, effect of age on strength of concrete,
effect of time of mixing, and various other features that have added to
general knowledge of concrete and its behaviour.
In addition to tests in the Laboratory, the work has been extended to
cooperate with engineers and contrac-
tors right on the construction job.
Recent examples of service, where
laboratory experts conducted tests for
individual projects, include the Trib-
une Tower, Chicago; the Big Four
Railroad Bridge at Sidney, Ohio; a
reinforced concrete flume for the
Washington Power Co., at Spokane,
Washington; concrete docks at Nor-
folk. Va.; concrete buildings at the
U. S. Indian Irrigation Project,
Blackfoot, Idaho; and many others.
Facts from the Laboratory are dis-
tributed through bulletins, lectures be-
fore technical and engineering socie-
ties, and through personal contact of
the fieldmen. The Laboratory is the
free service station of the cement
industry. It is the recognized head-
quarters for information on cement
and concrete. Because of it the field-
men are able to give concrete users
undisputed facts about how to use the
material and get maximum results.
The Laboratory is a striking exam-
1 UwmeUuml i p i e f the benefits derived by modern
in S industry and the public through |
• lb. entific research.
ON CEMENT INDUSTRY AND CONCRETE
15
PRODUCTION,
SHIPMENT AND STOCKS OF PORTLAND CEMENT
IN THE UNITED STATES
(Statistics from U. S. Geological Survey)
Year
Production
(Barrels)
1870-1879
82,000
1880
42,000
1885
150,000
1890
335,500
1891
454,813
1892
547,440
1893
590,652
1894
798,757
1895
990,324
1896
1,543,023
1897
2,677,775
1898
3,692,284
1899
5,652,266
1900
8,482,020
1901
12,711,225
1902
17,230,644
1903
22,342,973
1904
26,505,881
1905
35,246,812
1906
46,463,424
1907
48,785,390
1908
51,072,612
1909
64,991,431
1910
76,549,951
1911
78,528,637
1912
82,438,096
1913
92,097,131
1914
88,230,170
1915
85,914,907
1916
91,521,198
1917
92,814,202
1918
71,081,663
1919
80,777,935
1920
100,023,245
1921
98,842,049
1922
114,789,984
1923*
137,377,000
*Subject to revision.
Shipments
(Barrels)
75,547,829
85,012,556
88,689,377
86,437,956
86,891,681
94,552,296
90,703,474
70,915,508
85,612,899
96,311,719
95,507,147
117,701,216
135,887,000
Stock on Hand
at End of Year
(Barrels)
10,385,789
7,811,329
11,220,328
12,773,463
11,462,523
8,360,552
10,353,838
10,451,044
5,256,900
8,833,067
12,192,567
9,267,238
10,581,000
PRODUCTION OF PORTLAND CEMENT IN VARIOUS
COUNTRIES FOR 1923
(United States figures from U. S. Geological Survey. Foreign figures estimated)
Barrels
Belgium - 10,000,000
British Empire 35,000,000
France and Colonies - 12,000,000
Germany and Austria 30,000,000
Japan .. 12,000,000
All Others ■ 30,000,000
Total 129,000,000
UNITED STATES ■ 137,377,000
Grand Total 266,377,000
16 EDITORS' READY REF ERENCE BOOK
USE OF PORTLAND CEMENT PER CAPITA
(From U. S. Geological Survey Reports)
Use of Portland Percentage of Total
Cement Per Capita U. S. Production
(Barrels of 376 lbs.) Used by Each State
1922 1922
Alabama . . . . 41 .86
Arizona 1.69 .55
Arkansas 28 .43
California 2.23 7.18
Colorado l.n .94
Connecticut 86 1.09
Delaware I.54 30
District of Columbia 1.51 .57
Florida .89 .79
Georgia , 36 .93
Idaho .56 .22
Illinois I.43 8.32
Indiana 1.30 3.35
Iowa 1.32 2.79
Kansas 1.50 2.32
Kentucky 47 1#00
Louisiana 49 73
Maine 60 .40
Maryland 1.03 1.33
Massachusetts 76 2.62
Michigan 1.58 5^32
Minnesota I.43 3m
Mississippi 24 .36
Missouri 88 2^60
Montana 44 23
Nebraska 1.21 1 38
Ncv ada 1.18 ^08
New Hampshire 82 .31
New Jersey 1.53 4^40
New Mexico 73 23
New York 1.23 11*42
North Carolina .86 1 96
North Dakota 43 24
°|\ io u 1-28 6^68
Oklahoma 94 2 74
S" 80 " ••• us ; 8 i
Pennsylvama 116 g qq
Rhode Island 73 \g
South Carolina "35 * 54
South Dakota 73 * **
Tennessee , *39 '«.
Ut^ S - 59 2.49
^ Crmont 61 .i 8
Virginia 60 123
Washington , 7% '.
w~< Virginia 96
Wisconsin I 6g £'
Wyomin * ':::;;;;:;;;;;;;; i; 09 2 l
Average 1.06 Total 100.00
ON CEMEN T INDUSTRY AND CONCRETE 17
TABLE OF CONCRETE HIGHWAY MILEAGE IN THE UNITED
STATES COMPLETED AND UNDER TRAFFIC JANUARY 1, 1924
(All widths of pavement reduced to equivalent mileage
of 18-foot width)
Total to End
State Built 1922 Built 1923 of 1923
Alabama 7 5 40
Arizona 155 51 414
Arkansas 14 34 160
California 299 164 3288
Colorado 37 28 137
Connecticut 34 42 249
Delaware 67 79 292
District of Columbia Vz 8
Florida 31 48 106
Georgia 38 54 310
Idaho 13 V% 36
Illinois 625 1041 2991
Indiana 177 265 1151
Iowa 101 95 439
Kansas 154 93 407
Kentucky 11 23 103
Louisiana 7 *;
Maine 14 11 65
Maryland 85 129 863
Massachusetts 30 28 188
Michigan 234 319 1466
Minnesota 105 78 446
Mississippi 29
Missouri 82 139 327
Montana • ■ 2 J
Nebraska 18 19 55
Nevada 3 2 29
New Hampshire 4 3
New Jersey ..--- 112 117 530
New Mexico 18 59
New York 329 389 2243
North Carolina 127 336 595
North Dakota 1 Y* 4
Ohio 185 245 1403
Oklahoma 75 43 238
Oregon 44 35 199
Pennsylvania 461 365 2083
Rhode Island 5 7 33
South Carolina 41 20 140
South Dakota * *
Tennessee \i *?
Texas 91 ** 366
Utah 42 10 217
Vermont * *
Vireinia 38 m 497
KS£»v.v....... »• » 7,
8^:r:.:=::::::::::: aS £ 2
Wyoming ■■ ■_ 'J_
TotalforU.S 7^442 5194 25,627
18 EDITORS' READY REFERE NCE BOOK
SQUARE YARDS OF CONCRETE STREET PAVEMENT AWARDED
IN CITIES WITH POPULATION OVER 100,000
During 1923 End of 1923
3 Cities with Population Over 1,000,000
New York 91,385 446,305
Sum a f °, ; : 71 > 248 365,313
Philadelphia 19,090 141,348
9 Cities with Population Between 500,000 and 1,000,000
J? 1 etro 1 it • 31,146 605,010
Cleveland 32,170 268,167
St. Louis 42,221 117,928
^°? t . on 15,973 46,068
Baltimore 100,495 718,185
Pittsburgh 36) 242 75,837
k°% f n & eles 2,579,543 3,898,857
£ una}? 33,424 37,010
San Francisco 85j62 7 115,338
13 Cities with Population Between 250,000 and 500,000
Milwaukee 232,651 393,701
Washington, D. C 196,000 457,705
Newark, N. J 2,180 58,843
Cincinnati 4 g (12 2 144,036
New Orleans 70,932 i 58 ,202
Minneapolis 12 ,i 40 294,940
Kansas City, Mo 252,666 2,441,650
? e ^ tle • r 5 °7,600 1,744,863
Indianapolis 94 673 201 4g5
Jersey City
Rochester N. Y Y.V.Y.Y.Y.'.Y.Y. " 8,000 ' " 8,990
Portland, Oregon n 000 338 542
Denver 5,238 SSIOOO
43 Cities with Population Between 100,000 and 250,000
JrSence v;:::;;;;;:;;;;;;;: :::::::::::::: 101,975 495,366
Columbus, Ohio ' 7 -?qq
Srgjf ■....'.:.:::::::::::::::::::: :::::: IS
Oakland Calif77 . 77 7 90 ' 815 "Jg
Akron 49,864
At lama 2 ' 95 7 7 J • 09S
oSta 507 ' 252 1,316,886
Worcester," Mass! 77 7... „l]t fi « ,11
Birmingham 17>4 , 12 g' 7 * 2
Richmond, Va .f 4 " , 3 .^ 2
Syracuse "•*" iS £\*
New Haven 7,22 ° 56,589
Memphr. n 7..7. 20 > 800 29 j' 92 *
San Antonio 7.777. ,c n 94 ' 2 °°
Dallas I 50 410,466
Dayton 94 ' 011 298 > 399
Bridgeport; c'onn7/.7.7. 7 /. 21 > 700 78 ' 428
Houston "\'mi:k
Hartford 17 > 810
Scranton ". '. '. ". ". '. ". ">366 86,206
Grand Rapids " ' " V-fii:
Paterson T.™ YYYY/Y/YY. /. ///. 48 ' 851 225 ' 505
Youngstown ... «V««« 11,374
Sprin|field, Mass.". ".'.'. 95 > 897 291,194
Des Moines, Iowa. .ViJiii 120J71
119,947 408,358
ON CEMENT INDUSTRY AND CONCRETE 19
43 Cities with Population Between 100,000 and 250,000 — Continued
During 1923 End of 1923
New Bedford, Mass 14,187
Fall River, Mass. 49,536
Trenton, N. J 48,816
Nashville, Tenn 64,91 1
Salt Lake City, Utah 162,523
Camden, N. J 112,000
Norfolk, Va 6,200 26,590
Albany, N. Y 25,520 81,165
Lowell, Mass 11,750 36,149
Wilmington, Del 7,466 80,652
Cambridge, Mass
Reading, Pa 2,584
Ft. Worth, Texas 25,023
Spokane, Wash 51,498 352,040
Kansas City, Kansas 140,000 628,505
Yonkers, N. Y ... 131,028
FEDERAL AID PROJECTS COMPLETED AND UNDER
CONSTRUCTION 1916 TO JANUARY 31, 1924
(Compiled from Statistics of the U. S.
Type Cost
Concrete $316,101,897.62
Brick 31,083,826.40
Bituminous Concrete 43,388,634.82
Bituminous Macadam 79,264,824.36
Waterbound Macadam 27,405,486.08
Gravel 184,140,823,53
Sand Clay 33,242,643.80
Graded 80,958,032.34
Bridges 27,871,097.07
Total $823,457,266.02 100.0 46,569.2 100.0
Bureau of
Public Roads)
Percentage
Percentage of
of Total
Total Cost
Mileage Mileage
38.4
8,353.7 18.0
3.8
715.7 1.5
5.3
1,227.2 2.6
9.6
2,668.4 5.7
3.3
1,439.1 3.1
22.4
17,860.5 38.3
4.0
4,599.1 9.9
9.8
9,622.2 20.6
3.4
83.3 0.2
SUMMARY OF STATE HIGHWAY BOND ISSUES AUTHORIZED
NOVEMBER, 1918 TO JANUARY 1, 1924
State Amount Year Authorized
Alabama $ 25,000,000 1922
California 40,000,000 1919
Colorado 6,000,000 1920
Colorado 5,000,000 1922
Idaho 2,000,000 1920
Illinois 60,000,000 1918
Maine 8,000,000 1919
Maryland 3,000,000 1920
Maryland 4,000,000 1922
Michigan 50,000,000 1919
Missouri 60,000,000 1920
Nevada 1,000,000 1919
New Jersey . 40,000,000 1922
New Mexico 2,000.000 1921
North Carolina 50,000,000 1921
Oregon ... 12,500,000 1919
Oregon ... 6,180,000 1920
Oregon 7,000,000 1921
Pennsylvania 50,000,000 1918
Pennsylvania 50,000,000 1923
South Dakota 4,500,000 1919
Utah 4,000,000 1919
West Virginia 50,000,000 1920
Wyoming 2,800,000 1919
19 States $542,980,000
Following Raw Materials Thr
r.rindln» wild rock and gla^-hard clinker demand* an enormous Steam *l.ovel« in (he <,uarrie« pW
amount of power. rork at ea»t.
krough a Typical Cement Mill
g pick up several tons of the blasted A single rotary cement kiln may weigh as much as a locomotive
s t rich bite. and eight steel Pullman cars.
22 EDITORS' READY REFERENCE BOOK
SUMMARY OF STATE AND COUNTY HIGHWAY BOND ISSUES
AUTHORIZED NOVEMBER, 1918 TO JAN. 1, 1924
State Amounts State Amounts
Alabama $ 31,100,000 Nebraska $ 3,000,000
Arizona 13,475,000 Nevada 1,200,000
Arkansas 4,900,000 New Hampshire
California 70,439,000 New Jersey 45,359,000
Colorado 11,000,000 New Mexico 2,325,000
Connecticut 35,000 New York 5,567,947
Delaware 2,040,000 North Carolina 69,759,000
District of Columbia North Dakota
Florida 12,255,000 Ohio
Georgia 17,125,000 Oklahoma 10,511,000
Idaho 12,075,000 Oregon 42,918,604
Illinois 76,430,845 Pennsylvania 140,453,237
Indiana 1,860,000 Rhode Island
Iowa 19,275,000 South Carolina 20,735,000
Kansas 50,000 South Dakota 4,500,000
Kentucky 9,140,000 Tennessee 9,855,000
Louisiana 14,338,000 Texas 125,240,500
Maine 8,073,000 Utah 8,809,500
Maryland 9,600,000 Vermont 75,000
Massachusetts 42,000 Virginia 3,231,000
Michigan 54,210,000 Washington 10,003,000
Minnesota 18,582,000 West Virginia 67,990,500
Mississippi 18,719,000 Wisconsin 37,391,000
Missouri 76,339,600 Wyoming .... 4,600,000
Montana 7,283,000
Total $1,101,910,733
What Goes Into a Mile of Concrete Road?
A MILE of concrete pavement as ordinarily constructed, 18 feet wide, will
"> require 2000 cubic yards of mixed concrete. This means that 3400 barrels
of portland cement, 1100 cubic yards of sand and 1600 cubic yards of stone
must be supplied and mixed.
In making 3400 barrels of portland cement some 340 tons of coal, or
equivalent quantities of oil or gas, are burned at the cement mill. Approxi-
mately 19 tons of gypsum are required to regulate the setting time of the
material. To get the cement shipped to the construction job, 13,600 cloth
cement sacks are needed— and approximately 13 bales of cotton must be
woven into cloth to supply this item. Incidentally, over 60,000,000 cloth
cement sacks are lost or destroyed each year and the textile industry is called
on to furnish replacements. Back in the cement quarries approximately 400
pounds of dynamite were discharged in blasting loose the raw materials
required for the cement for the mile of highway.
A government bulletin estimates that 30 gallons of water are needed to
mix and cure a square yard of concrete pavement. Over 300,000 gallons of
water must be furnished for the mile of road, and over 4,000 tons of concrete
go into the project.
A good idea of what the highway construction business means to the
railroads can be obtained from the requirements of a mile of concrete road.
About 32 cars of sand are needed on this job, 46 cars of stone are required,
fxru U ta ^ es 17 cars to haul the ce ment— or 95 cars for the basic materials.
Where reinforcing is specified, further transportation is called for, while the
water supply is governed by local conditions. In addition to these require-
ments the drainage, grading, bridge and culvert construction must all be
provided for.
ON CEMENT INDUSTRY AND CONCRETE 23
TOTAL MILEAGE AND MILEAGE OF SURFACED ROADS
IN UNITED STATES, JANUARY 1, 1924
Miles of Sur-
Total faced Road*
Sta *e Mileage January 1, 1923
Alabama 58,410 10,778
Arizona 21,227 1,646
Arkansas 74,866 4,744
California 75,889 15^263
Colorado 48,143 6,230
Connecticut 12,152 2,374
Delaware , 3,933 528
District of Columbia
Florida 27,643 6,876
Georgia , 94,000 19,060
Idaho 31,099 3,597
Illinois 96,326 12,435
Indiana 76,246 42,292
Iowa 104,082 3,424
Kansas 128,552 1,372
Kentucky 68,704 16,039
Louisiana 39,803 3,527
Maine 21,483 3,303
Maryland . 14,772 3,835
Massachusetts 18,868 6,81 1
Michigan 77,283 19,756
Minnesota 107,103 18,982
Mississippi 53,085 6,357
Missouri 111,520 8,346
Montana 64,732 1,901
Nebraska 86,556 656
Nevada 26,057 249
New Hampshire 13,841 1,837
New Jersey 14,061 6,824
New Mexico 45,549 2,101
New York 81,878 20,210
North Carolina 68,204 18,871
North Dakota 106,523 853
Ohio 84,219 37,272
Oklahoma 134,263 2,648
Oregon 45,475 9,028
Pennsylvania 90,991 14,863
Rhode Island 2,274 840
South Carolina 61,850 7,456
South Dakota 115,485 874
Tennessee 62,546 10,604
Texas 167,685 16,986
Utah 23,047 2,987
Vermont 14,677 3,693
Virginia 59,080 7,815
Washington 45,816 12,872
West Virginia 35,173 1,558
Wisconsin 78,679 21,672
Wyoming 46,528 578
2,940,378 422,724
*Includes gravel and sand-clay surfaces or better.
Figures from National Motorists Association.
Total mileage certified by States, 2,886,061; Certified for Federal Aid,
168,881.
24
EDITORS* READY REFERENCE BOOK
ROAD MAINTENANCE COSTS IN NEW YORK
(Figures compiled by New York State Highway Department, Albany, N. Y.)
The following table gives the average annual cost of maintenance of
various types of paved highway in New York for the years 1918-1922, inclusive
—classified according to the volume of traffic.
Cost of Main- Total Maintenance
Average No. of tenance per Including
Vehicles per Mile per Year Shoulders and
12-hour Day Miles Pavement Only Ditches
First Class Concrete Pavement 1:2:4 Mix or Better
Less than 500 1M.61 $ 62 $172
500 to 1000 158.28 54 152
1000 to 2000 •■• 199.46 76 226
Over 2000 • 98.28 149 402
Total 570.63 Average $ 80 $230
Brick Pavement
Less than 500 . 31.35 $165 $414
500 to 1000 64.33 99 199
1000 to 2000 62.69 109 219
Over 2000 87.77 279 493
Total 246.14 Average $174 $337
Mixed Bituminous Macadam on Concrete Base
Less than 500 7.66 $ 99 $300
500 to 1000 22.65 146 231
1000 to 2000 30.39 146 298
Over 2000 29.02 229 336
Total 89.72 Average $169 $293
Mixed Bituminous Macadam on Macadam Base
Less than 500 12.87 $375 $473
500 to 1000 5.90 513 612
l'OOO to 2000 7.48 302 484
Over 2000 17.89 544 913
Total 44.14 Average $449 $673
Bituminous Macadam Penetration Method
Less than 500 947.41 $303 $429
500 to 1000 1050.61 355 499
1000 to 2000 798.03 409 612
Over 2000 317.09 646 889
Total 3113.14 Average $382 $547
Waterbound Macadam
Less than 500 1111.72 $551 $658
500 to 1000 763.26 652 843
1000 to 2000 360.12 692 897
Over 2000 38.51 881 1110
Total 2273.61 Average $615 $766
Gravel Surface
Less than 500 1 10.76 $584 $737
500 to 1000 31.49 721 924
1000 to 2000 6.62 675 872
Over 2000 .60 824 983
Total 149.47 Average $622 $785
TOTAL OF ALL TYPES
Less than 500 2384.17 $422 $543
500 to 1000 2181.23 438 595
1000 to 2000 1522.76 422 618
Over 2000 611.04 495 735
6699.20 Average $433 $595
ON CEMEN T INDUSTRY AND CONCRETE 25
How the United States Geological
Survey Describes the Work of the
Portland Cement Association
(Reprinted from "Cement in 1922," published by the U. S. Geological
Survey, Department of The Interior.)
"One of the features of the year 1922 was the commemoration in
November of the twentieth anniversary of the Portland Cement
Association. The Geological Survey has since 1910 enjoyed helpful
cooperation in statistical and scientific studies from this association,
and a few facts concerning its growth and work will be of interest.
It began in 1902, when a group of about 20 cement manufacturers met
in Philadelphia to consider the cement-sack problem. Within a year
common interests drew into the organization producers of 90 per cent
of the output of portland cement in the United States, and at present
more than 95 per cent of the domestic output is represented by mem-
bership in the association, which now extends also to manufacturers
in Canada, Mexico, Cuba, Argentina, and Uruguay.
"From a single paid employe in 1902-1905 the staff of the associa-
tion has grown into one of the largest engineering, educational, and
scientific research organizations in the world and at the end of 1922
comprised 342 employes, more than 200 of whom were trained engi-
neers. Twenty-four district offices are maintained, one of them in
Canada, for the purpose of rendering to the public, free, the utmost
service and advice concerning the economical and efficient utilization
of cement and concrete. A structural materials research laboratory
is maintained at Lewis Institute, Chicago, which has carried its inves-
tigations far beyond those possible to Government laboratories at
the present time.
"The Portland Cement Association is doing work of so many kinds
that to enumerate them in detail here would require too much space,
but it is rendering so broad a service to the public that a brief outline
of its activities and publications may well be furnished by the Geologi-
cal Survey, which has occasion continually to refer correspondents
to the association for data that are commonly believed to be obtained
by the Government.
"The general subjects of papers distributed by the Portland
Cement Association during 1922 included various phases of concrete
roads, streets, alleys, pavements, bridges, schoolhouses, homes, swim-
ming pools, mercantile and industrial buildings, fireproof buildings,
chimneys, garages, coal pockets, grain tanks, railway-track supports,
oil tanks, drainage tile, sewer pipe, silos, manure tanks, septic tanks,
foundations, concrete block and brick, fence posts, making and use
of concrete, storage of cement, and many miscellaneous subjects. It
also issued periodical publications devoted to highways and con-
struction."
26 EDITORS' READY REFERENCE BOOK
The Bates Experimental Road
HpHE State of Illinois is engaged in the construction of a highway
■*■ system which will have a length of about 5000 miles and will cost
about $100,000,000. To undertake a program of that magnitude with-
out definite knowledge of the type and design of pavement best able
to carry legal traffic under the conditions existing in the state seemed
unwise; so early in 1920 the state highway officials decided to pave a
road and test the pavement by driving trucks over it until it was
destroyed.
The location selected for the test road is typical of a large part of
the middle west. It is in the heart of the corn belt, a few miles from
Springfield, 111. Concrete, brick and asphalt were the paving mate-
rials selected for the test. With each of these materials, sections
varying from thin to thick, and having various foundation courses
were built, so that nearly every design that has been advocated in the
United States was represented. There were 63 of these sections,
each from 100 to 250 feet long. Construction was started in
June, 1920, and finished in July, 1921. Traffic tests were not begun until
March, 1922. Three-ton army trucks with solid tires were used,
making regular, timed trips up one side and down the other of the
road. Beginning with the bare chassis, the load was increased until
the maximum legal load for the state was exceeded by 66 per cent.
The results of the tests, as contained in reports of the state high-
way department, show that of the 22 sections of brick, 17 of asphalt
and 24 of concrete, 4^ per cent of the brick, 17 y 3 per cent of the
asphalt and 41^ per cent of the concrete successfully sustained all
the imposed traffic.
In 1923, Illinois constructed over 1000 miles of concrete pave-
ments.
Tractive Resistance Tests
A SERIES of tests conducted by A. N. Johnson with the coopera-
<*** tion of the White Company, Cleveland, Ohio, to bring out facts
regarding the resistance of different types of pavement to motor
vehicles, resulted in the following results:
Kind of Road Condition Miles per Gallon
Brick** S° od H-78
o nc £ • Extra smooth 11.44
D F? CK • Fair — somewhat worn . Q 88
GravTl n ° US maCadam Fair-somewhat worn YYYYYYY. . '. . ' YYY. 9 AS
E r «h' ^ ■ ' 19
Clay— a little mud— fair condition 5.78
In conducting these tests, White trucks were used, carrying a
load of two tons and running at a speed of 15 miles per hour. On
concrete the trucks averaged 11.78 miles per gallon. The gasoline
consumption on dirt roads was 104 per cent greater than on concrete.
ON CEMENT INDUSTRY AND CONCRETE 27
Power Consumption on Various
Types of Roads
TESTS which have been made by the Engineering Experiment
Station of the Iowa State College on the effect of road surfaces
on gasoline consumption show that the better types of roads mate-
rially decrease the consumption of gasoline. The average results of
the investigations were as follows :
On earth 14 ton-miles per gallon
On gravel 21
On bitulithic 28.5
On brick 29.7 " " " ^
On concrete 31
It is logical to assume an equivalent comparative mileage per
battery for electric trucks. If 35 miles per battery charge is the
mileage secured on an earth road the mileage secured on other sur-
faces would be as follows:
MiLeage per Gallon Miles per
in per cent of Mileage Battery
on Earth Road Charge
Earth 100 35
Gravel 150 52 %
Bitulithic 203 71
Brick 212 74
Concrete 221 77 ' .
(Tables published in the Commercial Car Journal, Dec. 15, 1923)
Cost Per Mile for Cars in Rental Service
Without Drivers
Cost per Mile on
Earth Concrete
Kind of Car Roads Roads
Ford Touring - $0,093 $0,069
Ford Coupe . -094 .070
Ford Sedan °« -J"
Dodge Touring 11S - 091
I
T will be seen from this table that there is a practically uniform
saving of 2.4 cents per mile on the total cost of operation over
concrete roads as against dirt roads. In terms of percentage this
saving runs from about 21 to 25 per cent, depending on type of car.
For 12,000 miles the saving totals $288, which is important to any
car owner, and especially so to the owner of a small car.
The figures above were furnished by R. A. Balcom, proprietor of
The General Tire Company, Springfield, 111. When this company
engaged in the "Hire a Car and Drive It Yourself" business, a com-
plete cost record system was devised, and certain cars were assigned
to dirt road trips while others were used on concrete roads. These
figures were based on operations after all cars had been driven over
12,000 miles. Costs included gasoline, oil, tires, repairs, depreciation,
interest on the investment, cleaning and housing.
28
EDITORS' READY REFERENCE BOOK
How Much Can a Horse Pull?
'"PESTS recently conducted by the Horse Association of America show that
to start a farm wagon, weighing with its load more than 7700 pounds,
there is needed a pull of
125 pounds on a concrete road, or 32.5 lb. per ton
200 pounds on a brick road, or 51.9 lb. per ton
300 pounds on an asphalt road, or 78 lb. per ton
520 pounds on a good dirt or cinder road or 135 lb. per ton
An editorial in the Salt Lake City, Utah, Tribune, of October 7, 1923, says:
"A series of experiments conducted by the Horse Association of America
(Iowa State Fair, Des Moines, Sept., 1923) resulted in demonstrating that a
horse may develop as much as twenty horsepower in an emergency. The
tests were made with an apparatus invented for the purpose of finding out
how much a horse can pull. The tests showed a team of good horses can
exert a tractive pull of 2000 pounds, or enough to lift a ton vertically. Such
pulls as these are not needed on ordinary roads. It was shown that on a
concrete road surface the amount of pull required to start a farm wagon
weighing with its load more than 7700 pounds, was only 125 pounds.
"The influence of the road surface was demonstrated by additional experi-
ments which showed that to start the same load on a good brick road required
a 5™Sw? f 200 P ounds > while 300 pounds were required on an asphalt surface
and 520 pounds on a good dirt or cinder surface. In other words, the same
team can pull four times as much on a concrete road as it can on the best
surfaced dirt road.
"The new tests emphasized the value of breeding and training in horses
and have opened up new possibilities, their inventor says, in the direction of
WMlJ ♦ VlP mC !!? Urem r Cnt °u PCrf °5 mance of differing breeds and individuals.
While the value of weight in draught animals was again demonstrated a
rKLn^ ,° f thC teS ^ S WaS that ^ men ess counted almost as much.
Ur~r in^rU fn I weighing 455 pounds less than its competitors, pulled
n anv SJ V'TTVS WClght tf an any 0ther team entered in the tests
in any class. More extended tests will be made next year."
Lighting Standards
Sooner or later the question of street lieht-
r?fl 1S ^ rC t0 be a Hve isSUC in every Progressive
city The newspaper interested in campaigns for
better street lights will find valuable information
in the experience of the following cities, where
concrete lighting standards have been widely
Milwaukee, Wis.
Rochester, New York
Denver, Colo.
Detroit, Mich.
Indianapolis, Ind.
Chicago, 111.
Fond du Lac, Wis.
Beloit, Wis.
Pittsburgh, Pa.
Knoxville, Tenn.
Oshkosh, Wis.
Racine, Wis.
ON CEMENT INDUSTRY AND CONCRETE 29
Concrete Products
A large percentage of the annual cement production is used in the manu-
facture of concrete products, such as concrete building block, brick and tile,
pipe, silo staves, roofing tile, etc.
At the beginning of 1924 there were approximately 6000 manufacturers
engaged in producing concrete products of all types.
During 1923 approximately 5000 concrete block houses, surfaced with
Portland cement stucco, were erected in the eastern states alone.
Production of Concrete Block
1921 175,000,000
1922 300,000,000
1923 385,000,000
These figures are for the equivalent of block 8 by 8 by 16 inches.
In 1922 approximately 10,000,000 light-weight building tile were manu-
factured in the United States. In 1923 this figure jumped to 20,000,000.
In 1923 approximately 150,000,000 concrete brick were produced in this
country.
Concrete Silos
There are approximately 400,000 concrete silos on American farms at the
present time. Of this number about 100,000 are located in the state of Wis-
consin, which fact is largely responsible for the prosperity of Wisconsin dairy
farmers. Conservative figures show that a silo pays about 40 per cent profit,
and frequently pays for itself in one year.
In Kane County, Illinois, where there are 2000 farms, there are 2000
concrete silos.
Concrete Pipe
While concrete pipe has been generally used in the United States and
foreign countries for over eighty years, the greatest progress has been made
during the last twenty years. It has been used for building storm and san-
itary sewers, railroad and highway culverts, irrigation water supply lines and
for drainage systems.
Sewer pipe is manufactured in two classes — plain and reinforced. Plain
pipe is produced in standard sizes from 4 to 24 inches, and reinforced pipe in
sizes from 24 to 108 inches internal diameter. One company has sold over
500 miles of reinforced pipe for sewer construction alone.
Concrete irrigation pipe has been extensively used for irrigation purposes
in the arid regions of the country. The state of California has installed at
Delhi, a system which required 200 miles of pipe from 12 to 36 inches internal
diameter. Such pipe is used widely by the U. S. Reclamation Service. A
prominent engineer of Berkeley, California, has estimated that over 25,000
miles of concrete pipe have been used in the construction of irrigation sys-
tems in California alone during the past thirty years.
The use of concrete pipe for water supply systems has been largely
confined to sizes above 12 inches internal diameter. There are a number of
lines in existence operating under heads from 10 to 150 feet. Some of the
installations are the Sooke Lake Aqueduct near Victoria, B. C, consisting of
27 miles of 42-inch pipe; a portion of the Winnipeg Aqueduct consisting of
12^ miles of 48 to 66-inch reinforced concrete pipe; Baltimore, Md. (tunnel
lining), consisting of l J / 2 miles of 84 to 108-inch pipe.
Large jobs have been installed at Norfolk, Va.; Cumberland, Md.; Denver,
Colo.; Fort Worth, Texas.; Pendleton, Oregon, and in Tulsa, Okla., where
52 miles of 54 and 60-inch pipe were required to supply water for the city.
The actual value of the pipe alone for this job was $3,000,000.
30 EDITORS' READY REFERENCE BOOK
Largest Concrete Structures
Office Buildings
The 21-story United Brethren building in Dayton, Ohio, is the
tallest concrete building in the world. The Medical Arts building
in Dallas, also a concrete structure, is 19 stories high.
Concrete in the Army and Navy
The U. S. Navy supply base at Brooklyn consists of four build-
ings and a power house with a combined floor area of 2,275,000 square
feet. It was designed to house 70,000 tons of supplies.
The Army supply base at Brooklyn has a floor area of 4,100,000
square feet. Both are concrete projects.
Wireless Tower
The concrete wireless tower at Tokyo, Japan, is 672 feet high and
is the tallest tower in the world. During the Japanese earthquake
this tower, although on the edge of the quake zone, withstood the
shocks without damage and was used to send out messages describ-
ing the disaster.
Concrete in the Panama Canal
Over 5,000,000 cubic yards of concrete were required in the con-
struction of the Panama Canal.
Railroad Viaduct
The Tunkhannock Creek viaduct, completed in 1915 by the Dela-
ware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad in Pennsylvania, is the
largest structure of its kind in the world. This viaduct is 240 feet
high and 2375 feet long. Approximately 370,000 cubic yards of con-
crete and 2360 tons of reinforcing steel were used. The cost was
approximately $12,000,000.
Dam
The Wilson Dam at Muscle Shoals has a total length of 4111
feet The dam crest is 80 feet above the elevation of the river bed
and will carry gates 18 feet high.
Chimney
The highest concrete chimney in the world is located at a smelter
plant at Sagonoseki, Japan. It is 570 feet high and 42 feet 8 inches
wide at the base.
Overfall Dam
The highest overfall type of dam, constructed of solid concrete
i«S ^ \< °" thC Yadkm River near Baden > N - C J t is 1400 feet long
and 217 feet in maximum height. It contains 525,000 cubic yards of
concrete and is a part of a hydro-electric development
ON CEMENT INDUSTRY AND CONCRETE 31
Suggestions for Avoiding Difficulties
Caused by the Seasonal Nature of
the Construction Industry
(A reprint of pages 242-243, "Cement in 1922," published by the U. S.
Geological Survey, Department of the Interior.)
"A recent article offers some pertinent advice to show how dealers and
users can help to avoid a shortage of cement at the time of peak demand, as
well as to help relieve the congestion in freight shipments, and enable the
Portland cement mills to maintain a more steady rate of production through
the simple expedient of ordering early the cement that they will need later
and storing it for use when transportation difficulties make prompt deliveries
impossible.
"It is pointed out that manufacturing capacity cannot be made adjustable
to the spasmodic demands of the building industry, and that, although the
mills of the country may be able, for example, to produce 12,000,000 barrels
in one month, it is not possible for them to produce 24,000,000 barrels in one
month to make up for shutdowns in some other month. Manufacturers cannot
afford to make and store a large quantity of cement for which they have no
immediate demand, although many of them have done so in the early part of
the year, a practice that entails the tying up of a large amount of capital and
naturally has its effect on the price of cement.
"Beyond the accumulation of a safe reserve, the storage of finished cement
by the manufacturers in winter for shipment later in the year tends to com-
plicate the transportation situation, because the heaviest movement of crops,
building material, and coal comes in the summer and fall, when the demand
for railroad facilities exceeds the supply, so that car shortages are bound to
occur, even though the railroad equipment is in good order. Dealers and
contractors therefore find it advantageous to order and store cement early
in the year, but in order to do this intelligently they must have some idea
what their requirements will be, for portland cement cannot be stored in-
definitely, and to this end they must have the cooperation of the architect,
engineer, and banker. If all these forces are set in motion early in the year,
much may be accomplished toward distributing the demand over a longer
period of the year.
"A good step in this direction has been taken by several State highway
departments, notably those of Indiana and Illinois, by inserting in their
contracts the provision that a certain percentage of the cement required to
complete each job must be kept in stock by the contractor. This provision
should help materially to keep road work going in times of car shortage, but
road work is handicapped because in most States it cannot be carried on
during the winter like some other kinds of construction work."
32
EDITORS' READY REFERENCE BOOK
Mats of Farm Improvements
A series of twenty short, illustrated features on farm improve-
ments, prepared in mat form, can be had by any newspaper by
merely asking for them from the nearest Association district office.
One of the mats is reproduced on this page. Others cover fire-safe
chimneys, dairy barns, smokehouses, storage cellars, farm ice houses,
and other improvements that help the farmer with his daily labor.
Cooling Vats Aid Dairy Business
MODERN dairying demands con-
crete construction in almost
all necessary equipment, whether
it be the build
ings, the floors,
walls, or cooling
tanks. Sanita-
tion and clean-
liness are essen-
tial if the dairy
Ls to show a
profit. In many
localities laws
provide that dai-
ry buildings
shall be of a
thoroughly sani-
tary type and
concrete has
demonstrated
that it is the
most successful
all-purpose ma-
2ff. Birr.
(Drain >
A cooling vat is a necessary adjunct
where dairy products are han-
dled.
terfal meeting these requirements.
An almost indispensable adjunct
to the milk house is a cooling tank,
which is built essentially in the
same manner as a stock watering
trough. Inlet and overflow fittings
should be provided, with proper
consideration for the depth of wa-
ter to be maintained in the tank so
that cans will be kept submerged
to well up arotind their n
Grooves cast In the bottom of the
tank while its floor is being con-
creted " will provide for adequate
circulation of water under the cans.
These grooves can be formed by
pressing several triangular strips of
wood into the concrete before it has
hardened, and afterward removing
them.
Frequently an ice house and
milk room are combined. With a
home supply of ice available, the
^•_ content of the
tank can be
kept cool by
keeping chunks
of ice in it.
Otherwise spring
water may be
circulated
through the
tank.
Often a spring
is inclosed with
a concrete build-
ing which be-
comes the milk
house after the
spring has been
properly walled
with concrete.
fm^m^
2
It has been estimated that at
least 30 per cent of such dairy
products as milk and cream is
wasted on the farm due to lack
of or insufficient coolin<r facilities.
The products spoil before they
can be marketed. These figures
are based on careful studies of the
United States Department of Agri-
culture and enable anyone to prove
to himself that the cost of a milk
house is soon returned through pre-
vention of waste.
For a tank 8 feet long the follow-
ing materials will be needed: 0%
a of cement; 13 cubic fe*et
sand; 20 cubic feet of pebbles; 170
feet of 14-inch steel rods. Mix In
following proportions: 1 part ce-
I ment, 2 parts sand, 3 parts gravel.
ON CEMENT INDUSTRY AND CONCRETE
33
How to Place Concrete in Cold Weather
The fundamental thing to know
about placing concrete in cold
weather is that concrete must not
freeze before it hard-
ens. Although it is
easy to keep concrete
from freezing it would
be better not to start
any farm improvement
in freezing weather
unless the proper pre-
cautions are to be tak-
en to protect the fresh
concrete from the
cold. However, if
these precautions are
taken there is no rea-
son why farm im-
provements with con-
crete should not be
carried out regardless
of the low tempera-
ture.
Since warmth and
moisture are required
for the proper harden-
ing of concrete, cold
weather work should
be planned with these
necessities in view.
Both the mixing water
and the aggre-
gates should be
heated. The
cement forms
such a small
portion of the
bulk of con-
crete that it
need not be
heated, but it
is well to keep
it in a warm
place for a few
hours before it
is used.
The nearer
the water is to the boiling point,
the better. There are several meth-
ods used for heating aggregates. A
simple arrangement that any farmer
can contrive is a metal cylinder
similar to a corrugated road culvert
over which the sand, broken stone
or pebbles can be piled and in which
a fire can be built. Care must be
taken to heat the fine and coarse
1— Aggregates and mixing water should
be heated to about 150 degrees Fah-
renheit in order to insure that con-
crete is of the proper temperature
when placed.
2— Concrete when placed in forms
should have a temperature not less
than 70 degrees Fahrenheit.
3 — Heat aggregates and mixing water
when prevailing temperature ranges
between 40 and 50 degrees Fahrenheit.
4 — When temperature is likely to fall
to freezing or below, heat materials
and protect concrete from freezing.
Warm forms. Remove all snow and
Ice. Leave forms in place until con-
crete Is strong enough to be self-
supporting.
aggregates separately in order to
avoid premixing them in the wrong
proportions. If the materials are
heated as above out-
lined and the con-
crete is deposited
immediately after
mixing, its tempera-
ture when placed in
the form will be
around 80 degrees
and if care is taken to
prevent the too rapid
loss of this contained
heat, the concrete will
harden properly.
In placing concrete
in cold weather the
forms must be free
from snow, ice and
frost. After the con-
crete is placed it
should be protected
while hardening so as
to maintain the warm
moist condition essen-
tial for the rapid de-
velopment of strength.
There are many ways
of doing this. A layer
of clean straw or hay
will furnish
sufficient pro-
tection for
some classes of
work. Where
the job can be
enclosed, open
coke stoves or
salama n d e r s
may be used.
In severe
weather, such
protection
should be con-
tinued for at
least five days.
The concrete should be protected as
soon as placed in order to retain
the heat.
Care should be taken that the
concrete is strong enough to bear
a load before the forms are re-
moved. This can be determined by
pouring hot water on the concrete
to be sure that the concrete has
hardened and not merely frozen*
34
EDITORS' READY REFERENCE BOOK
The "Home, Sweet Home" House in
Washington, D. C.
A S the feature of the Better Homes Movement in 1923, the Gen-
«* eral Federation of Women's Clubs constructed a house similar
to the Long Island cottage that inspired the famous song, "Home,
Sweet Home," written by John Howard Payne in 1823. The repro-
duction was erected in the nation's capital across from the White
House and many government officials, including President Harding,
took part in the dedicatory exercises.
Preliminary negotiations for the building of the house were com-
pleted on Friday, April 20; necessary permits were obtained Saturday
and on Monday, immediately after the formal breaking of the ground
at noon by Secretary Herbert Hoover, construction was started. By
night the footings were in, as there were no basement excavations.
1 he end of the first week saw the walls up, the roof sheathed and
the partitions in place for lathing.
Standard concrete block were used in laying up the walls and
three coats of portland cement stucco were applied. The house was
ready for occupancy, with plumbing, decorations and all equipment
in place, exactly five weeks from the time the first spadeful of earth
was turned in the excavation.
After serving its purpose as the feature of the Better Homes
Movement during the year the house was donated to the Girl Scouts
n^ m ° V i! a° a l0t near the Corcoran Ar t Gallery where it is being
used as headquarters for the girl's organization
Th€ f.n
1 ""• of Women'. ( |„b*
ON CEMENT INDUSTRY AND CONCRETE
35
House Plans for the Building Page
Pictures and plans of attractive homes furnish an ideal feature for
the building page. Many newspapers have taken advantage of the
house plan mat service of the Portland Cement Association, covering
every type of dwelling.
»*citwb.¥1
4ji*vn > V uTllDJr fuolajiv
DONT OELW
START THAT
JOB NOW!
NEWS OF THE BUILDING EIELD
HARVEY A. DWIGHT
t*D m."4 STUFXTi. 1
: ALBANY LUMBER AND PLANING
MILL CO, INC
MM l H-JMBOI *-1D rtA HIWC tOU,
NUDGE AKD MJU. JTWETS
MURNANE BROS.
PRACTICAL HOMES OF CHARACTER - No. 116
<1 THOMAS L. CLt\50V AP'-X-'
j4:%~~ ±, Bag
AfrnU for the Fnkc ' Bntk
WflH fioorj - S*wr Pip* - Dtmrt Pip*
Agt.-uliural Limt- Agricultural C«
rwu *t*T *«» OB *ti1 »«•
36 EDITORS' READY REFERENCE BOOK
Annual Supplies Needed by the
Portland Cement Industry
HpHE following estimates of materials required by the Portland
* Cement Industry during 1923 are based on United States Geo-
logical Survey Reports of production for that year.
Fuel
Over 10,500,000 tons of coal were burned during 1923 in making
the year's output of portland cement. Of this total, more than
7,000,000 tons were pulverized for burning in the kilns and, in a few
cases, in the dryers. The remainder was used chiefly in generating
power.
Over 4,700,000 barrels of fuel oil were burned during the year,
chiefly in plants in California, Texas, Oregon, Kansas and Washing-
ton. Most of this was used in kilns and dryers.
Over 4,000,000,000 cubic feet of gas were consumed in cement mill
operation during the year.
Sacks
Over 60,000,000 cloth sacks were lost or destroyed during the year.
To replace these a strip of cloth over 34,000 miles long and 30 inches
wide was needed. Most of these sacks were cotton, although some
jute bags were used. Over 225,000,000 cloth sacks were in service
in 1923.
Over 43,000,000 paper bags were used in shipping cement during
the year, which is a large increase over 1922. In making these sacks
about 16,000,000 pounds of paper were required.
Lubricants
Over 4,500,000 pounds of grease and 4,500,000 gallons of lubricat-
ing oil were used during the year at the cement mills. Combined
this represents more than 38,000,000 pounds of lubricants.
Fire Brick
For relining cement kilns over 5,400,000 fire brick were needed.
Belting
Over 2,000,000 lineal feet of belting were worn out and had to be
replaced during the year.
Dynamite and Other Explosives
Over 16,000,000 pounds of explosives were set off in cement quar-
ries during the year.
Gypsum
<7oc^™ contro " in B the rate of hardening of cement when used over
725,000 tons of gypsum were ground up with the clinker.
ON CEMENT INDUSTRY AND CONCRETE
37
How Much of a Concrete Building
Is Cement?
Distribution of Construction Costs
of a
6-Story Reinforced Concrete Building of Mushroom Type
100' 0" by 170' 0"
Overhead and profit is figured at 15 per cent and 10 per cent respectively
on contractor's direct costs and architect's fees at 7 per cent on total, includ-
ing overhead and profit.
Prices used in arriving at the percentage of distribution are average prices
prevailing February 1, 1923.
(The above data is used through the courtesy of the American Appraisal
Company, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.)
38
EDITORS' READY REFERENCE BOOK
Concrete — and the City Beautiful
X^ ROM "A New Art of Concrete" — an address delivered before
■** the American Concrete Institute by Lorado Taft, world famous
sculptor. These remarks were made in referring to "The Fountain
of Time" in Washington Park, Chicago, originally executed in
plaster by Mr. Taft and reproduced in concrete under his direc-
tion by John J. Earley of Washington, D. C.
"Most people, when one speaks of concrete, think of pavements
and the color of a sidewalk, but here is something new which com-
bines two very advantageous qualities in sculpture. We used to
spend weeks in the Beaux-Arts days in Paris, after shaping a figure
and modeling the flow of its surface, in going over it and putting
little dabs of clay on it, you know, to get a little sparkle into it, a
little vivacity — well, you don't have to do that any more. Just make
it of this aggregate of pebbles and wash away the cement and you
find your little dabs there; it has a wonderful effect. But more than
that is the combination of colors which gives you a 'pointellist' paint-
ing. Mr. Earley took me into a vestibule in Washington — one of the
most beautiful things I ever saw. You go up to it and feel of those
moldings and they are hard and sharp — done with the firmest stroke,
and yet from a distance they have almost the sparkle of a pen-and-ink
drawing.
"I am telling you things that you know better than I do, but I
wonder you don't go out and shout it from the housetops and get
people interested. It is coming so slowly. One of our most intelli-
gent art connoisseurs in Chicago said, 'I don't know but what we
will be driven to using cement blocks in the university buildings';
but when I think of the possibilities of monolithic work which he
does not know anything about yet, I am astonished at the inertia
of humanity. I have had two wonderful experiences in the last two
days. One was in that church which Mr. Earley has recently com-
pleted in Washington, the interior all in color. I do not know what
that Byzantine decoration would cost in mosaic, but I'll guess this
I^rado Taft, world famous M-ulntor. designed the Fountain of Time \l ashing on Park
< hicago. which was reproduced in concrete under his direetion hv John .1 Karlev archi-
tectural M-ulpfnr of Washington. li (
ON CEMENT INDUSTRY AND CONCRETE
39
was not a tenth part of what the other method would cost. The
mosaic maker will pick up his little stones with a forceps, perhaps,
and lay them in. Mr. Earley apparently does it with a pepper box,
but the result is beautiful. Yes, the results are perfectly marvelous
in their vibrancy and harmony. I experienced some more thrills
when I went down and saw another of Mr. Earley's jobs at Nashville.
"If I seem unduly enthusiastic about all this it is because I have
had the opportunity of doing some large things in sculpture and
know the difficulties of the work. If you knew how disappointing
every artist's work is to him; if you could compare the dream he
had and the result, you would know how humble we feel when we
get through. And yet, how it is needed. This great country of ours
is full of monotony, of arid, inartistic spots. My rich state of Illinois
has four hundred towns of over a thousand inhabitants. Not many of
them have places that one would care to take a friend from abroad to
see because of anything man has created there. They compare so
badly in that respect to European villages, with their wealth of
historic association — towns where everything is picturesque and
wonderful and interesting. Here in America people grow up and
grow tired of their home-town and try to get away from it. As one
of our novelists has put it, 'every train that goes through a country
village tells of a promised land somewhere else; it is a cloud of
smoke by day and a pillar of fire by night, alluring and inviting.'
The youth of the country is led by this terrible drag, this tremendous
gravitation toward the great city and you know what happens to
them there.
"I think this is an unwholesome condition. I think there is some-
thing more important than the veneer of civilization, there is some-
thing vastly important in making the home town lovable and lovely
for those who live there. Now by this new process it is possible that
our home town shall have beautiful little fountains and monuments
and decorations as exquisite in design as the world can produce and
yet created at a comparatively small expense. That is why I am
enthusiastic about this thing.
"It seems to me that we are on the verge of one of the greatest
developments in American art."
Another view of the Fountain of Time. The design was suggested by the lines written by
Austin Dobson — "Time goes you say; all, no, Time stays, we go."
40
EDITORS' READY REFERENCE BOOK
Standard Specifications for Portland
Cement
JN the early days of the cement industry its quality standards were
imported. A compilation of 91 cement specifications made in 1898
showed that scarcely two were alike. In many cases requirements
were contradictory.
Through the efforts of the United States Bureau of Standards, a
number of technical organizations, and the Portland Cement Associ-
ation, a single standard cement specification was established in 1921
This standard is the highest in the world.
One of the by-laws adopted by the Portland Cement Association
makes membership in the Association contingent upon the members'
product meeting the requirements of the standard specification
The Essentials of Good Concrete
■CTXCESS mixing water weakens concrete. Sloppy mixtures sac-
^ rifice strength. One pint more water than necessary in a one-
bag batch decreases the strength and resistance to wear of concrete
as much as if two or three pounds of cement had been left out.
Thorough mixing is essential to good concrete. Time of mixing
not speed of mixing, insures strength and quality. The mixing of
each batch should continue for not less than 1 minute after all
materials are in the mixer. The longer the better.
Good grading of aggregates increases the strength of concrete
In general, coarse sand will produce stronger concrete than fine sand
while stone or pebbles in which the larger sizes predominate will
produce stronger concrete than smaller ones.
ron?? fU / distinctio J n should be ™de between the requirements of
concrete for water during the mixing operation and during curing.
w a ^r S t a h f a e / U n t0 l° ll0W iS i° USC the SmaIlest 9 uantit y o( mixing
hanT *■ 1 Pr ° dUCe 3 sufficientl y P^stic mixture for the work in
hand, and then to g.ve the surface of the concrete as much curing
water as possible, after the concrete has been placed.
cem^rinH 6 h \ rdens T because of chemical reactions between portland
be kent damn a f , I " "* a , drying ° Ut pr ° Cess - Concrete should
be kept damp for at least ten days to secure best results. There is
nothmg that can be done to concrete that mil pay such big dividends
as proper use of water in mixing and curing. oiviaenos
C/3
a
U3
a
o
ft.
O
3
o
-J
Playing Your Part in
Your Community
What will your community be ten, fifteen or twenty
years from now ? Will it be more prosperous, more beau-
tiful — a more desirable place to live and work in than
today ?
It will, if you play your part.
Look around you. Somewhere you have seen the
magic of concrete roads — the tonic effect of concrete
streets. Have seen business improved through buildings
made firesafe, sanitary and permanent with concrete.
Have seen the greater sense of security and pride that
comes from concrete schools, churches, theaters and
homes.
I f you are boosting for similar advantages in your own
community — your home town — you are truly playing
your part.
Portland Cement Association service helps anyone to
play his part well.
It is a free service for the owner, the builder, the
architect, the contractor, the engineer — for everyone
interested in getting the greatest value from concrete
construction.
The cement industry has made this service possible
through the Portland Cement Association. It is a serv-
ice offered without any obligation.
Write our nearest District Office for any help you
need in using concrete.
Portland Cement Association
A National Organization to Improve and Extend the Uses of Concrete
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